Everything about Ephesus totally explained
Ephesus (
Hittite Apasa;
Ancient Greek Ἔφεσος;
Turkish Efes) was a city of ancient
Anatolia. During the period known as
Classical Greece it was located in
Ionia, where the
Cayster River (
Küçük Menderes) flows into the
Aegean Sea. It belonged to the
Ionian League.
Ephesus hosted one of the
seven churches of Asia, addressed in the
Book of Revelation of
The Bible), and the
Gospel of John might have been written here. It is also the site of a large
gladiator graveyard.
The city was famed for the
Temple of Artemis (completed around
550 BC), and both were destroyed by the
Goths in
263. The emperor
Constantine rebuilt much of the city and erected a new public bath. The town was again partially destroyed by an earthquake in
614. The importance of the city as a commercial centre declined as the harbour slowly filled with silt from the river.
Today's archaeological site lies 3 kilometers south of the
Selçuk district of
İzmir Province,
Turkey. The
ruins of Ephesus are a favorite international and local tourist attraction, partly owing to their easy accessibility from
Adnan Menderes Airport and via the port of
Kuşadası.
History
Neolithic age
The area surrounding Ephesus was already inhabited during the Neolithic Age (about 6000 BC) as was revealed by the excavations at the nearby
hoyuk (artificial mounds) of Arvalya and Cukurici.
Bronze age
Excavations in recent years have unearthed settlements from the early
Bronze Age at the Ayasuluk Hill. In 1954 a burial ground from the
Mycenaean era (1500-1400 BC) with ceramic pots was discovered close to the ruins of the basilica of St. John. This was the period of the Mycenaean Expansion when the
Achaioi (as they were called by
Homer) settled in
Ahhiyawa during the 14th and the 13th centuries BC. Scholars believe that Ephesus was founded on the settlement of Apasa (or
Abasa), a
Bronze Age-city noted in 14th century BC
Hittite sources as in the land of
Ahhiyawa.
Dark age
The city of
Ephesus itself was founded as an Attic-Ionian colony in the
10th century BC on the Ayasuluk Hill, three kilometers from the center of antique Ephesus (as attested by excavations at the
Seljuk castle during the 1990s). The mythical founder of the city was
Androklos, son of king Kadros and a prince of
Athens, who had to leave his country after the death of his father. According to legend, he founded Ephesus on the place where the oracle of
Delphi became reality ("A fish and a boar will show you the way"). Androklos drove away most of the native
Carian and
Lelegian inhabitants of the city and united his people with the remainder. He was a successful warrior and, as king, he was able to join the twelve cities of
Ionia together into the
Ionian League. During his reign the city began to prosper. He died in a battle against the Carians when he came to the aid of
Priene, another city of the Ionian League. Androklos and his dog are depicted on the Hadrian temple frieze, dating from the second century. Later, Greek historians such as
Pausanias,
Strabo and the poet Kallinos, and the historian
Herodotos however reassigned the city's mythological foundation to Ephos, queen of the
Amazons.
The Greek goddess
Artemis and the great Anatolian goddess
Kybele were identified together as
Artemis of Ephesus. The many-breasted "Lady of Ephesus", identified with
Artemis, was venerated in the
Temple of Artemis, one of the
Seven Wonders of the World and the largest building of the ancient world according to
Pausanias (4.31.8). Pausanius mentions that the temple was built by Ephesus, son of the river god
Caystrus. before the arrival of the Ionians. Of this structure, scarcely a trace remains.
Archaic period
About
650 BC Ephesus was attacked by
Cimmerians who razed the city, including the temple of Artemis. A few small Cimmerian artifacts can be seen at the archaeological museum of Ephese.
When the Cimmerians had been driven away, the city was ruled by a series of tyrants. After a revolt by the people, Ephesus was ruled by a council called the
Kuretes. The city prospered again, producing a number of important historical figures, such as the
iambic poets
Callinus and the satirist
Hipponax, the philosopher
Heraclitus, the great painter
Parrhasius and later the grammarian
Zenodotos, the physicians
Soranus and Rufus.
About
560 BC Ephesus was conquered by the
Lydians under the mighty king
Croesus. He treated the inhabitants with respect, despite ruling harshly, and even became the main contributor to the construction of the temple of Artemis. His signature has been found on the base of one of the columns of the temple (now on display in the
British Museum). Croesus made the populations of the different settlements around Ephesus regroup (
synoikismos) in the vicinity of the Temple of Artemis, enlarging the city.
Later in the same century, the Lydians under Croesus invaded Persia. The Ionians refused a peace offer from
Cyrus the Great, siding with the Lydians instead. After the Persians defeated Croesus the Ionians offered to make peace but Cyrus insisted that they surrender and become part of the empire. They were defeated by the Persian army commander
Harpagos in
547 BC. The Persians then incorporated the Greek cities of Asia Minor into the
Achaemenid Empire. Those cities were then ruled by
satraps.
Classical period
Ephesus continued to prosper. But when taxes continued to be raised under
Cambyses II and
Darius, the Ephesians participated in the
Ionian Revolt against Persian rule in the
Battle of Ephesus (498 BC), an event which instigated the
Greco-Persian wars. In
479 BC, the Ionians, together with
Athens and
Sparta, were able to oust the Persians from Anatolia. In
478 BC, the Ionian cities entered with Athens and Sparta the
Delian League against the Persians. Ephesus didn't contribute ships, but only participated with financial support by offering the treasure of Apollo to the goddess
Athena, protector of Athens.
During the
Peloponnesian War, Ephesus was first allied to
Athens but sided in a later phase, called the Decelean War, or the Ionian War with Sparta, which also had received the support of the Persians. As a result, the rule over the kingdoms of Anatolia was ceded again to Persia.
These wars didn't affect much the daily life in Ephesus. In those times, Ephesus was surprisingly modern in their social relations. They allowed strangers to integrate. Education was much valued. Through the cult of Artemis, the city also became a bastion of women's rights. Ephesus even had its female artists. In later times
Pliny mentions having seen at Ephesus a representation of the goddess
Diana by Timarata, the daughter of a painter.
In
356 BC the temple of Artemis was burnt down, according to legend, by a lunatic called Herostratus. By coincidence, this was the night that Alexander the Great was born. The inhabitants of Ephesus started at once with the restoration and even planning a larger and grander temple.
Hellenistic period
When
Alexander the Great defeated the Persian forces at the
Battle of Granicus in 334 BC, the Greek cities of Asia Minor were liberated. The pro-Persian tyrant Syrpax and his family were stoned to death and Alexander was greeted warmly in Ephesus when he entered it in triumph. When he saw that the temple of Artemis wasn't yet finished, he proposed to finance the temple and have his name as an inscription of the front. But the inhabitants of Ephesus refused, claiming that it wasn't fitting for a god to build a temple for another god. After the death of Alexander in
323 BC, Ephesus came under the rule of
Lysimachus, one of Alexander's generals, in
290 BC.
As the river Cayster was silting up the harbour, the resulting marshes were the cause of malaria and many deaths among the inhabitants. The people of Ephesus were forced to move to a new settlement 2 kilometers further on, when the king flooded the old city by blocking the sewers. This settlement was called after the king's second wife
Arsinoe II of Egypt. After
Lysimachus had destroyed the nearby cities of
Lebedos and
Colophon in 292 BC, he relocated their inhabitants to the new city. The architectural layout of the city would remain unchanged for the next 500 years.
Ephesus revolted after the treacherous death of
Agathocles, giving the Syrian king
Seleucus I Nicator an opportunity for removing and killing Lysimachus, his last rival, at the
Battle of Corupedium in
281 BC. After the death of Lysimachos the town took again the name of Ephesus.
Thus Ephese became part of the
Seleucid Empire. After the murder on king
Antiochus II Theos and his Egyptian wife, pharao
Ptolemy III invaded the Seleucid Empire and the Egyptian fleet swept the coast of Asia Minor. Ephesus came under Egyptian rule between 263-197 BC.
When the Seleucid king
Antiochus III the Great tried to regain the Greek cities of Asia Minor, he came in conflict with
Rome. After a series of battles, he was defeated by
Scipio Asiaticus at the
Battle of Magnesia in
190 BC. As a result, Ephesus came under the rule of the Attalid king of
Pergamon Eumenes II (197-133 BC). When his grandson
Attalus III died without male children of his own, he left his kingdom to the
Roman Republic.
Roman Period
Ephesus became subject of the
Roman Republic. The city felt at once the Roman influence. Taxes rose considerably and the treasures of the city were systematically plundered. In
88 BC Ephesus welcomed
Archelaus, a general of
Mithridates the Great, king of
Pontus, when he conquered Western Anatolia. This led to the
Asiatic Vespers, the slaughter of 80,000 Roman citizens in Asia Minor, or any person who spoke with a Latin accent. Many had lived in Ephesus. But when they saw how badly the people of
Chios had been treated by Zenobius, a general of Mithridates, they refused entry to his army. Zenobius was invited into the city to visit Philopoemen (the father of Monima, the favorite wife of Mithridates) and the overseer of Ephesus. As the people expected nothing good of him, they threw him into prison and murdered him. Mithridates took revenge and inflicted terrible punishments. However, the Greek cities were given freedom and several substantial rights. Ephesus became, for a short time, self-governing. When Mithridates was defeated in the
First Mithridatic War by the Roman consul
Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Ephesus came back under Roman rule in 86 BC. Sulla imposed a huge indemnity, along with five years of back taxes, which left Asian cities heavily in debt for a long time to come.
When
Augustus became emperor in
27 BC, he made Ephesus instead of Pergamum the capital of
proconsular Asia, which covered the western part of Asia Minor. Ephesus entered an era of prosperity. It became the seat of the governor, growing into a metropolis and a major center of commerce. It was second in importance and size only to Rome. Ephesus has been estimated to be in the range of 400,000 to 500,000 inhabitants in the year
100, making it the largest city in Roman Asia and of the day. Ephesus was at its peak during the first and second century AD.
The city was famed for the
Temple of Artemis (
Diana), who had her chief shrine there, the
Library of Celsus, and its theatre, which was capable of holding 25,000 spectators. This open-air theater was used initially for drama, but during later Roman times gladiatorial combats were also held on its stage, with the first archaeological evidence of a gladiator graveyard found in May 2007. The population of Ephesus also had several major
bath complexes, built at various points while the city was under Roman rule. The city had one of the most advanced
aqueduct systems in the ancient world, with multiple aqueducts of various sizes to supply different areas of the city, including 4 major aqueducts.
The city and the temple were destroyed by the
Goths in
263. This marked the decline of the splendour of the city.
Byzantine era (395-1071)
Ephesus remained the most important city of the
Byzantine Empire in Asia (after
Constantinople) in the 5th and 6th centuries. The emperor
Constantine rebuilt much of the city and erected a new public bath. In
406 John Chrysostom, archbishop of Constantinople, ordered the destruction of the Temple of Artemis. Emperor
Flavius Arcadius raised the level of the street between the theatre and the harbour. The basilica of St. John was built during the reign of emperor
Justinian I in the sixth century.
The town was again partially destroyed by an earthquake in
614.
The importance of the city as a commercial centre declined as the harbour slowly filled with silt from the river (today, Küçük Menderes) despite repeated dredges during the city's history. (Today, the harbor is 5 kilometers inland). The loss of its harbor caused Ephesus to lose its access to the
Aegean Sea, which was important for trade. People started leaving the lowland of the city for the surrounding hills. The ruins of the temples were used as building blocks for new homes. Marble sculptures were ground to powder to make lime for plaster.
Sackings by the
Arabs first in the year
654-
655 by
caliph Muawiyah I, and later in
700 and
716 hastened the decline further.
When the
Seljuk Turks conquered it in
1071-
1100, it was a small village. The Byzantines resumed control in
1100 and changed the name of the town into Hagios Theologos. They kept control of the region until
1308. Crusaders, passing through, were surprised that there was only a small village, called Ayasalouk, where they'd expected a bustling city with a large seaport. Even the temple of Artemis was completely forgotten by the local population.
Turkish era
The town was conquered in
1304 by Sasa Bey, an army commander of the
Menteşoğullari principality. Shortly afterwards, it was ceded to the
Aydinoğullari principality that stationed a powerful navy in the harbour of
Ayasluğ (the present-day
Selçuk, next to Ephesus). Ayasoluk became an important harbour, from where the navy organised raids to the surrounding regions.
The town knew again a short period of flourishing during the
14th century under these new
Seljuk rulers. They added important architectural works such as the
İsa Bey Mosque, caravansaries and
Turkish bathhouses (hamam).
They were incorporated as vassals into the
Ottoman Empire for the first time in
1390. The Central Asian warlord
Tamerlane defeated the Ottomans in Anatolia in
1402 and the Ottoman sultan
Bayezid I died in captivity. The region was restored to the
Anatolian Turkish Beyliks. After a period of unrest, the region was again incorporated into the Ottoman Empire by sultan
Mehmed II in
1425.
Ephesus was eventually completely abandoned in the 15th century and lost her former glory. Nearby Ayasluğ was renamed Selçuk in
1914.
Ephesus and Christianity
According to the
New Testament, Ephesus became an important center for early
Christianity from the 50s AD.
Paul used it as a base and spent there more than two years on his third missionary journey (
Acts 19:8, 19:10, 20:31). He became embroiled in a dispute with artisans, whose livelihood depended on selling the statuettes of Artemis in the Temple of Artemis (
Acts 19:23–41). He wrote between
53 and
57 A.D. the letter
1 Corinthians from Ephesus (possibly from the "Paul tower" close to the harbour, where he was imprisoned for a short time). Later Paul wrote to the Christian community at
Ephesus, according to tradition, while he was in prison in Rome (around 62 A.D.)
The Apostle John lived in Asia Minor (Anatolia) in the last decades of the first century and from Ephesus had guided the Churches of that province. After Domitian's death the Apostle returned to Ephesus during the reign of Trajan, and at Ephesus he died about
100 AD at a great age. Ephesus was one of the
seven cities addressed in
Revelation (2:1–7), indicating that the church at Ephesus was still strong.
Two decades later, the church at Ephesus there was still important enough to be addressed by a letter written by Bishop
Ignatius of Antioch to the Ephesians in the early 2nd century AD, that begins with, "Ignatius, who is also called Theophorus, to the Church which is at Ephesus, in Asia, deservedly most happy, being blessed in the greatness and fullness of God the Father, and predestinated before the beginning of time, that it should be always for an enduring and unchangeable glory" (
Letter to the Ephesians). The church at Ephesus had given their support for Ignatius, who was taken to Rome for execution.
The
house of the Virgin Mary (Turkish:
Meryem Ana, meaning "Mother Mary"), about 7 kilometers from
Selçuk, is believed to have been the last home of
Mary, mother of Jesus. It is a popular place of pilgrimage which has been visited by three recent
popes.
The
Church of Mary close to the harbor of Ephesus was the setting for the
Third Ecumenical Council in
431, which resulted in the condemnation of
Nestorius. A
Second Council of Ephesus was held in
449, but its controversial acts were never approved by the Catholics. It came to be called the Robber Council of Ephesus or Robber Synod of Latrocinium by its opponents.
Main sights
The
Library of Celsus, whose façade has been carefully reconstructed from all original pieces, was built ca. AD
125 by Gaius Julius Aquila in memory of his father, and once held nearly 12,000 scrolls. Designed with an exaggerated entrance — so as to enhance its perceived size, speculate many historians — the building faces east so that the reading rooms could make best use of the morning light.
A part of the site,
St. John's Basilica, was built in the
6th century AD, under emperor
Justinian I over the supposed site of the apostle's tomb. It is now surrounded by
Selçuk.
The
Temple of Artemis, one of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, is represented only by one inconspicuous column, revealed during an archaeological excavation by the
British Museum in the 1870s. Some fragments of the
frieze (which are insufficient to suggest the form of the original) and other small finds were removed – some to London and some to the Archaeological Museum, Istanbul. Other edifices excavated include:
- The Odeon - a small roofed theatre constructed by Vedius Antonius and his wife in around 150 A.D. It was a small salon for plays and concerts, seating about 1,500 people. There were 22 stairs in the theater. The upper part of the theatre was decorated with red granite pillars in the Corinthian style. The entrances were at both sides of the stage and reached by a few steps.
- The Temple of Hadrian dates from the 2nd century but underwent repairs in the 4th century and has been reerected from the surviving architectural fragments. The reliefs in the upper sections are casts, the originals being now exhibited in the Selçuk Archaeological Museum. A number of figures are depicted in the reliefs, including the emperor Theodisius I with his wife and eldest son.
- The Tomb/Fountain of Pollio - erected by a grateful city in 97 AD in honor of C. Sextilius Pollio, who constructed the Marnas aqueduct, by Offilius Proculus. It has a concave facade.
There were two agoras, one for commercial and one for state business.
Seven sleepers
Ephesus is believed to be the city of the
Seven Sleepers. The story of the Seven Sleepers, who are considered saints by
Christians and
Muslims, tells that they were persecuted because of their belief in God and that they slept in a cave near Ephesus for centuries.
Notable people
Zeuxis (5th century BC) painter
Parrhasius (5th century BC) painter
Parrhasius (4th century BC) Greek painter
Agasias (2nd century BC) Greek sculptors
Manuel Philes (c. 1275-1445) Byzantine poetFurther Information
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